Objective

The Drug Recognition Expert (DRE) program trains law enforcement officers to detect drivers under the influence of illegal drugs, prescription and over-the-counter medications, and inhaled products that impair a driver.  

Driving While Impaired by Drugs

Impaired drivers are not always impaired by alcohol. A trend which has seen a  marked increase is the number of drivers who are impaired by drugs - prescription as well as illicit drugs. The DRE definition of a drug is any substance, when taken into the human body, can impair the ability of a person to operate a vehicle safely. 

The Arizona Department of Public Safety, in conjunction with the Governors Office Of Highway Safety and the International Association of Chiefs of Police, is helping to combat this rising problem by continued support of the Drug Recognition Expert (DRE) program. When an person is investigated for driving under the influence, and the breath test shows little or no alcohol in the system, a DRE is contacted to conduct  further investigation. A DRE receives training which gives them the tools to observe additional signs of impairment not readily visible to other law enforcement officers.

Training

Law enforcement officers who are interested in the DRE program should contact the training officer/team for their agency for additional information.

An individual in the process of achieving certification as a drug recognition expert is called a candidate DRE. To achieve certification, a person must successfully complete a training program consisting of:

An IACP/NHTSA-approved SFST training course of instruction

A two-day IACP/NHTSA-approved DRE preschool

A seven-day IACP/NHTSA-approved DRE school

On-the-job field certification

The DRE School is extremely demanding. To receive certification as a DRE, two phases of training must be completed. The following summarizes each phase.

Academic Training

This phase is typically conducted over 9 days (72 hours). It includes courses in physiology, vital signs, standardized field sobriety testing (SFST), as well as extensive material on each of the 7 categories of the drugs of abuse. The training includes a minimum of 3 written examinations, an SFST proficiency examination, and a minimum of 5 written quizzes. Students must achieve a minimum of 80% on the examinations, and must demonstrate proficiency in administering SFST's in order to progress to the certification phase.

Certification Phase

After successfully completing the academic portion, the students must complete the certification phase. It is the student's responsibility to complete the certification requirements within 6 months following DRE School. These requirements include: conducting a minimum of 12 drug influence evaluations while under the supervision of a DRE instructor; identifying subjects under the influence of 4 of the 7 drug categories; and attaining a 75% toxicological confirmation rate. In addition, the student must maintain a progress log, rolling log, and submit a quality resume. Finally, the student must pass a comprehensive final knowledge examination, and obtain the written endorsement of 2 certified DRE instructors.

The International Association of Chiefs of Police (IACP) is the regulating and certifying organization for the DRE program. DRE certification is valid for 2 years. In order to maintain certification, DRE's must conduct a minimum of 4 evaluations within 2 years, submit a rolling log and current resume, and attend 8 hours of recertification training.

History of the DRE Program

The Drug Recognition Expert (DRE) Program and procedures were initially developed in the 1970s by traffic enforcement officers of the Los Angeles Police Department. This procedure trains selected officers to utilize a standardized twelve step evaluation procedure, that enables the officer to determine whether an individual is under the influence of drugs, and then to determine the type of drug causing the observable impairment. Importantly, the DRE procedure enables the DRE to rule in (or out) many medical conditions, such as illness or injury, that may be contributing to the impairment. Although the primary focus of the DRE procedure is driving under the influence (DUI) enforcement, the procedures have been applied to Health and Safety Code violations, probation, parole, drugs in the workplace issues, and other areas where accurately identifying the drug-impaired individual is relevant.

The accuracy of the procedure used by DREs has been validated in two controlled studies. In 1984, a research study at Johns Hopkins University showed that Los Angeles DREs were able to accurately distinguish between the drug-impaired and non-drug-impaired individual. A subsequent Field Validation Study (173 case study) sponsored by the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration in 1985 evaluated the accuracy of the DRE procedures in actual arrest situations. Again, the DREs were very successful in identifying both the drug-impaired individual and the class(es) of drug(s) causing the impairment.

The success of these studies has precipitated the dissemination of DRE techniques to 36 states plus the District of Columbia. In addition, officers in Canada, Australia, Norway, Germany and Sweden have been successful in adapting DRE skills to their jurisdictions.

The DRE procedures have been subject to numerous defense motions challenging the admissibility of DRE testimony. Thus far, courts in California, New York, Arizona, Minnesota, Colorado, and Florida have upheld the admissibility of DRE evidence.

Today, approximately 4,000 law enforcement officers nationwide are certified as DREs by the International Association of Chiefs of Police (IACP). All DREs can trace their expertise back to the 16 Los Angeles DREs that developed the initial formal curriculum in 1986.

The Drugs of Abuse: An Overview

Central Nervous System Depressants

This category includes the most widely abused drug, alcohol. In addition, the category consists of barbiturates, non-barbiturates that have barbiturate-like effects, anti-anxiety tranquilizers, anti-psychotic tranquilizers, certain anti-depressants, and certain pharmaceutical combinations that contain more than one type of CNS Depressant. The benzodiazepines, chloral hydrate, GHB, methaqualone (Mandrax), lithium, phenobarbital, the sedating antihistamines, and many other substances are included in this category. Commonly referred to as "downers," and also as sedative-hypnotics, the effects of these drugs at intoxicating doses mirror the effects of alcohol. Importantly, however, they are not detected by an alcohol breath test, and do not produce an odor of an alcoholic beverage. Unlike the case with alcohol, there are generally no consistent correlations between the levels of these drugs ingested and the degree of intoxication. These drugs produce relaxation, drowsiness, impaired balance and coordination, slurred speech, a lowering of inhibitions, and increased risk taking. They also produce horizontal gaze nystagmus, do not generally affect pupil size, and typically depress the vital signs. The non-alcohol CNS Depressants are extremely dangerous when taken with alcohol. Pharmaceutical preparations of these drugs usually contain warnings advising the user not to drink alcohol at the same time, and to be aware that they may impair driving.

Central Nervous System Stimulants

This category includes the ubiquitous cocaine in all its various forms, amphetamine, methamphetamine, ephedrine, Ritalin, certain diet pills, and other related substances. Commonly known as the "uppers," the effects of these drugs mimic the body's "fight or flight" response, the autonomic nervous system's response to perceived danger. Their effects include dilated pupils, elevated vital signs, hyper-alertness, rapid and agitated body movements, extreme weight loss accompanied by deteriorating health and hygiene, and a diminished ability to "filter" environmental stimuli, such as noises and movement. CNS Stimulants do not produce horizontal gaze nystagmus. The user may overreact to seemingly minor events, and may view minor inconveniences as elaborate plots. As the effects wear off, the user may physiologically "crash," and may appear nearly the opposite of when he or she was under the influence of the drug. The user may then sleep for long periods, may wake voraciously hungry, and may be extremely dysphoric.

Hallucinogens

Hallucinogens are used for their distorted sensory perceptions known as hallucinations. In many respects, they are closely related to the CNS Stimulants, as is evidenced by the fact that they also cause dilated pupils and elevated vital signs, and do not produce horizontal gaze nystagmus. The user may experience a mixing of the senses, called synesthesia, in which the user may "hear" visual stimuli, such as colors, and may "see" sounds, such as music. LSD, psilocybin, mescaline, peyote, bufotenine, morning glory seeds, jimson weed, nutmeg and the psychedelic amphetamines are some of the drugs in this category. The psychedelic amphetamines include MDMA, or methylenedioxy methamphetamine, which is known in the vernacular as "Ecstasy," and many other related preparations. Very popular in the 1960s, these drugs have experienced a resurgence of use in the 1990s.

Dissociative Anesthetics

This category of drugs is usually known by the drug PCP and its analogs, which represent the longer chemical name of phenylcyclohexyl piperidine. It is also commonly called phencyclidine. Although frequently classified as a hallucinogen, and sometimes as a depressant, a stimulant, or an analgesic, PCP is appropriately termed a dissociative anesthetic. The drug ketamine is an analog of PCP, which has uses in veterinary medicine, pediatric surgery and in other areas is included in this category, as are other chemical analogs of PCP.

Recently the drug dextromethorphan has been added to this category. Dextromethorphan, or DXM, is a widely available over-the-counter cough suppressant. When taken far above its standard medical dosage, it is a strong dissociative anesthetic abused primarily by teens. Many DXM-containing products (such as Coricidin Cough and Cold) also contain other active ingredients which can be dangerous or fatal in high doses. The typical effects of PCP are elevated vital signs, accompanied by both horizontal and vertical gaze nystagmus. In addition, rigid skeletal muscles, a blank stare, an absence of pain, hallucinations, and many other effects may be evident. PCP users may become suddenly violent, and pose an extreme danger to police officers.

Narcotic Analgesics

This final category includes the opiates, such as morphine, codeine, percodan, heroin, meperidine, methadone, fentanyl, and numerous others. These drugs relieve pain, but also produce sedation. The specific effects include constricted pupils, depressed vital signs, slow and deliberate movements, and forgetfulness. These drugs do not produce horizontal gaze nystagmus. Although these drugs are frequently injected, more users, because of concern over the spread of infectious disease through the sharing of hypodermic needles, are insufflating (intranasal administration) and inhaling drugs such as heroin. These drugs are known for their physically addictive qualities, as well as for the extremely unpleasant, though not life-threatening, withdrawal syndrome.

Inhalants

The drugs in this category are usually inhaled. Three sub-categories comprise the inhalants: volatile solvents, aerosols, and anesthetic gases. The typical user of these drugs is young, and as a result, does not have ready access to more preferred drugs. Included are solvents, such as paint thinner, gasoline, toluene, turpentine, and paint. Nitrous oxide ("laughing gas"), freon, ether, and many other substances are also included. Common indicators of the use of these drugs are the presence of chemical odors on the user, and residue of the substance on the user's face, clothing, and hands. Intoxicated individuals may look and act similar to one under the influence of alcohol. They may display impaired gait, slurred speech, bloodshot eyes, and a blank stare. Since these substances displace oxygen, the heart generally will accelerate, resulting in an increased pulse rate. Depending on the specific substance, blood pressure can be elevated or depressed. ²⁹ As with the CNS Depressants, these drugs generally produce horizontal gaze nystagmus, but do not usually affect pupil size.

Cannabis

This category, which includes marijuana, hash, hash oil, and the synthetic drug dronabinol, is the most widely abused illicit drug. Although it has a popular reputation as a relatively benign drug, it is extremely impairing, affecting judgment, depth perception, ability to maintain attention, as well as having effects on the cardiovascular system. Cannabis causes blood shot eyes, accelerated heart rate (tachycardia), muscle tremors, forgetfulness, and many other effects. Unlike the first three categories (CNS Depressants, Inhalants, and PCP), this category does not produce horizontal gaze nystagmus. Users of cannabis frequently use alcohol, as well as other drugs, at the same time.

For further information on the Arizona Department of Public Safety
Drug Recognition Expert Program, contact:
Arizona Department of Public Safety
DRE / SFST / Phlebotomy Coordinator
Officer Alan W. Haywood
602-223-2156

ahaywood@azdps.gov